A back office in a bank simply refers to the section where all the work is done in connection to finance. The back office is responsible for the accounting and financial processing of both customers and staff. A bank has many different jobs ranging from service, administration, and operations to more specialist functions like fraud prevention or investments. The work of the back office can be divided into three main parts: Financial administration, accounting, and payment transactions. In this article, we are going to look at what is a back-office and what does it do. What is a back office in banksA back-office in banks is an area where essential functions are carried out. The objective of a back office at a bank is to provide the financial infrastructure that enables the rest of the bank to run and prosper. The main areas covered by the back office include processing customer accounts, financing, managing information technology for both front-office (customers) and back-office (staff), managing money transactions, and providing services such as reporting, risk management, and auditing. Every bank requires a back office to provide these critical functions, which allow for the smooth running of the front office. A back office in a bank is where all of the paperwork, transactions, and general management tasks are processed in order to keep a bank running. What does the back office doThe main elements of work done by the back office can be divided into financial administration, accounting, and payment transactions. Financial administrationIn this area, the back office deals with things such as:
AccountingIn this area, the back office deals with things such as:
Payment transactionsThe back office is responsible for carrying out at least some of the following tasks:
Why back offices are importantA back office in a bank is an essential element for most banks. Banks can not function without some form of back-office organization, as they are responsible for the processing and administration of many activities crucial to a smooth financial system. The primary objective of banks is to provide customers with services such as checking accounts and savings accounts, home loans, wealth management services, and others. Because of the vast amount of customer activities that take place in a bank, a back office is vital in allowing the working parts of the bank to interact properly and smoothly. Without a back office, banks would not be able to function as customers would have no way to get access to their accounts or finance. The back office ensures that a bank is able to carry out its critical processes in the face of high demand for banking services. ConclusionA back office is the backbone of a bank. It is a place where all of the management and documentation processes take place in order for a bank to function. In this way, back offices are important because they allow front-office staff to focus on their primary objective: serving customers. Article Source Here: Back Office in Banks
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What is Econometrics?Econometrics is a field in economics that helps economists quantify economic theories. Historically, most economists only relied on economic theories and hypotheses. However, some of these theories were unproven due to the lack of quantified information available. With econometrics, economists were finally able to test those theories and develop new ones. Econometrics uses mathematical and statistical models to describe economic theories. It aims to convert qualitative statements into quantitative information that can help in economic policymaking. Due to its benefits, econometrics has become a crucial part of the economic policy- and decision-making process. However, econometrics isn't only beneficial for economic analyses. It can also have some uses in the world of finance. What is Econometrics for Finance?Econometrics for finance is the application of econometrics for financial purposes. In other words, it is the use of econometrics to analyze financial data. Econometrics for finance is a branch of financial econometrics. It usually concerns capital markets, corporate finance, financial institutions, and corporate governance. Financial analysts can use econometrics for several financial purposes. Primarily, it can help analyze the price of various financial assets traded in competitive, liquid markets. However, it can also be helpful in risk management and decision-making. Despite its uses, financial econometrics is still a developing field. However, there are some books that explore this field, some of which are as below. Introductory Econometrics for FinanceIntroductory Econometrics for Finance by Chris Brooks is a great book for those who want to learn the basics of the field. The book teaches the most common empirical approaches in finance in detail. It illustrates how financial analysts can use econometrics in finance. On top of that, it also includes detailed case studies to explain how they can use the techniques in relevant financial contexts. Overall, it is a well-written and comprehensive book for beginners. The Econometrics of Financial MarketsThe Econometrics of Financial Markets teaches econometrics for finance through statistical techniques with the context of a particular financial application. However, the book caters more to advanced users rather than beginners. The Econometrics of Financial Markets covers the most prominent topics in empirical finance. It also contains detailed recent examples and problems designed to help readers apply concepts to their work. Financial Econometrics: Models and MethodsFinancial Econometrics: Models and Methods is a book written by Oliver Linton, a world-renowned financial econometrician. This book explains financial econometrics through developments in econometrics and finance over 20 years. It also covers the fundamental principles of the field to get readers started. The book also has exercises and examples to explain concepts in a practical manner. Financial Econometrics: From Basics to Advanced Modeling TechniquesFinancial Econometrics: From Basics to Advanced Modeling Techniques is a book that introduces readers to concepts and theories related to the field. It includes background material on time series, probability theory, and statistics. On top of these concepts, it also includes illustrative examples for the topics discussed. The book comes from multiple authors who have experience in the finance and econometrics fields. Financial Econometric ModelingFinancial Econometric Modeling is a book that combines financial theory with econometric methods. The book discusses the power of data to introduce users to the global financial universe to which all modern economies relate. It includes foundational ideas, relevant econometric techniques, and areas of modern financial econometrics. It is an introductory book that is relevant to everyone interested in financial econometrics. ConclusionEconometrics is a field in economics that involves using mathematical and statistical methods to explain economic theories. Econometrics for finance is the application of econometrics concepts in the field of finance. It has become prevalent in the financial world. Several books can help readers understand financial econometrics, as listed above. Article Source Here: Econometrics for Finance Characterizing the market is an important step in trading system development. Currently, there exist a couple of approaches for identifying market regimes such as using trend and/or volatility filters, machine learning techniques, etc. Reference [1] proposed an approach that uses the Gaussian Mixture Models to identify market regimes by dividing it into clusters. In statistics, a mixture model is a probabilistic model for representing the presence of subpopulations within an overall population, without requiring that an observed data set should identify the sub-population to which an individual observation belongs. Formally a mixture model corresponds to the mixture distribution that represents the probability distribution of observations in the overall population. However, while problems associated with "mixture distributions" relate to deriving the properties of the overall population from those of the sub-populations, "mixture models" are used to make statistical inferences about the properties of the sub-populations given only observations on the pooled population, without sub-population identity information. Read more Using the Gaussian Mixture Models, the market was divided into 4 clusters or regimes,
As an application, the authors used the regimes to analyze the performance of triple moving average trading strategies, This research work has demonstrated that conventional Triple simple moving average and Triple exponential moving average trading strategies cannot produce desirable profits throughout all market regimes. As a result of this inefficiency, we identified the best market regime where each of the strategies can be used to achieve better trading portfolio returns. In short, the triple moving average trading systems did not perform well. However, the authors managed to pinpoint the market regimes where the trading systems performed better, relatively speaking. We observed the following,
References [1] F. Walugembe, T. Stoica, Evaluating Triple Moving Average Strategy Profitability Under Different Market Regimes, 2021, DOI:10.13140/RG.2.2.36616.96009 Originally Published Here: Using the Gaussian Mixture Models to Identify Market Regimes When you hear the word “enterprise,” what springs to mind? Maybe a big company like Coca-Cola or IBM. Rarely do people think of an enterprise as being their own business? But in fact, every small business is also an enterprise. The thing that differentiates a small business from other types of enterprises is its size and scope. When it comes to managing risk, there are many similarities between large companies and smaller businesses: both need to assess the risks they face; both need to identify ways of reducing those risks; and both need to put measures in place so that if disaster strikes they can still carry on trading while repairing any damage done by the event. So both require an effective enterprise risk management system to run a healthy business. But what exactly is enterprise risk management, and how does it work? Let's find out! What is enterprise risk managementEnterprise risk management (ERM) is the ongoing process of identifying, measuring, and mitigating risks to your organization in a systematic way. The overarching goal of ERM is to ensure that your business maintains continuity so that you can continue operating when a risk materializes. It may sound simple in theory, but it's not always easy to do in practice. But why is this such an important concept? To answer that, we can look at what happens when companies do not take their risks seriously enough. A 2008 report by the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners found that around 5% of global organizations go bankrupt within a year of suffering a major risk incident. And according to research by the Ponemon Institute, organizations that do not have an ERM strategy in place are five times more likely to go out of business than those that do. So it's safe to say that any company – large or small – cannot afford to be complacent about its risk management strategies. But what is enterprise risk management and how can you apply it to your business? How does enterprise risk management workEnterprise risk management is a long-term process that starts with the creation of an ERM program. This program contains all the essential elements required to establish your company as a serious professional business.
Once your program has been set up, enterprise risk management then becomes part of everyone's daily work – your team must all learn about the risks the business faces and play their part in reducing the chance of those risks occurring. Enterprise risk management benefitsAs we've seen, enterprise risk management is all about reducing the chance of your business suffering from a significant event. Here are some of the benefits of enterprise risk management
ConclusionEnterprise risk management is a powerful practice. If you're interested in this approach, there are several ways to get started. It can be done using something as simple as a spreadsheet or whiteboard; alternatively, you may wish to use an ERM software solution to keep track of your risks and progress. The important thing is that it's done! Originally Published Here: What Does Enterprise Risk Management Mean The primary objective of most audit assignments is for the auditor to express an opinion regarding the subject matter. Usually, they report it in a document known as the audit report. The term audit opinion defines a statement provided by auditors about a given subject matter. This opinion may differ based on the type of audit engagement, its scope, and auditors' findings. When it comes to external audits, auditors can only express an opinion in two forms. These include unmodified and modified audit opinions. However, the modified audit opinion has three other types. In total, there are four types of audit opinions that auditors may express in an external audit report. These opinions relate to a subject matter, which usually includes financial statements. What are the types of Audit Opinions?There are two primary classifications of audit opinions, including modified and unmodified audit opinions. Auditors express this opinion in a written statement in the audit report. An explanation of what each of these audit opinions is and what they mean is as below. Unmodified Audit OpinionAn unmodified audit opinion is a standard audit opinion provided by auditors. Auditors use this opinion when the given subject matter matches the requirements of the suitable criteria. Similarly, unmodified audit opinions express auditors' satisfaction in two regards. The first relates to auditors obtaining sufficient and appropriate audit evidence related to the subject matter. The second involves the subject matter meeting the suitable criteria. The unmodified audit opinion, or unqualified audit opinion, usually provides a green signal to stakeholders. However, it does not imply that the given subject matter is free from all misstatements. Some immaterial misstatements may still exist. Unmodified audit opinions do not modify the audit report. However, they can still be a part of modified audit reports. Modified Audit OpinionAuditors may also express a modified audit opinion. Usually, this happens if the subject matter can't fulfill the criteria for an unmodified audit opinion. A modified audit opinion also modifies the audit report. Usually, this opinion is a negative sign, implying the financial statements may have material misstatements. There are three types of modified audit opinions that auditors may express, as follows. Qualified Audit OpinionA qualified audit opinion is a type of modified opinion in which auditors express that the subject matter has material misstatements. Similarly, it may also relate to unavailable audit evidence. However, these material misstatements or unavailable pieces of evidence are not pervasive. The term pervasive relates to misstatements in the subject matter affecting users' decision-making. Therefore, auditors will only specify the areas where these issues exist. Adverse Audit OpinionAn adverse audit opinion also relates to the subject matter consisting of material misstatements. However, auditors only use this opinion when those misstatements are pervasive. In other words, auditors provide an adverse audit opinion when material misstatements in the subject matter affect users' decisions. Usually, auditors express this opinion when the client is unwilling to rectify significant misstatements. Disclaimer of OpinionWhen auditors cannot obtain sufficient and appropriate audit evidence related to the subject matter, they will express a disclaimer of opinion. Usually, auditors use this opinion when the client is uncooperative or concealing evidence. However, the effect of any unavailable audit evidence must be pervasive for auditors to express a disclaimer of opinion. ConclusionAn audit opinion is a statement expressed by auditors evaluating a subject matter against suitable criteria. There are two primary types of audit opinions that auditors may express. These include unmodified and modified audit opinions. The modified audit opinion has three types, including qualified opinion, adverse opinion, and disclaimer of opinion. Article Source Here: What are the Types of Audit Opinions Fallen Angel's investment strategy is a type of aggressive investment strategy, which has the potential to yield high returns. At the same time, it also entails high risk for investors. These investments are often made by venture capitalist firms in startup companies that have failed to get off the ground or need an infusion of cash to continue their operations. Angel investors must be able to accurately assess if they intend on investing in a company with low-quality assets or not. This means looking at certain ratios such as return on equity and debt-equity ratio before making any investments, and consequently increasing their chances of success compared to other types of investing strategies. However, these ratios can only give so much information about a company's viability going forward and therefore require further research. In this article, we are going to look at Fallen Angel's investment strategy and outline what is involved in executing it. Fallen Angels Investment Strategy: DefinitionAccording to Investopedia, a fallen angel refers to private equities or venture capital firms that have previously achieved strong returns but have since lost their luster because of poor subsequent performance. The term could also be described as individual investments that have underperformed and fallen out of favor with investors. In simple terms, a fallen angel is a company that has performed well in the past only to see its fortunes reverse and start declining. The term was coined by venture capitalist Fred Wilson during the dot-com boom period between 1995-2000 and refers to companies such as Microsoft, Oracle, and Cisco Systems whose stocks were considered overvalued during the period. How does Fallen Angels Investment Strategy WorkLike other types of investing strategies, Fallen Angel's investment strategy requires a thorough due diligence process in order to ensure that the company fulfills certain prerequisites deemed to be necessary for success. Depending on the nature of the research, this could include looking at historical financials and projections as well as examining current market trends and assessing how they will affect sales volumes going forward. However, a fallen angel investment strategy is not just limited to researching a company's financial history. Firstly, investors need to assess the reasons behind why the company fell out of favor in the first place. These could include low sales volumes, incompetent management decisions, high debt levels, or other related factors. After all, it is not unheard of for companies that have fallen from grace for one reason or another to bounce back and recover their initial investment value. The next step is to determine if the company's bounce-back potential is high enough that it would justify taking on the additional risk involved in investing in a fallen angel. This involves looking at whether other companies within the same space or industry have stocks that are undervalued, as well as considering whether the company can compete with them successfully in order to improve its fortunes. Finally, during the actual execution of a fallen angels investment strategy, investors should remain flexible and be willing to adjust their strategies as needed depending on how things are going. This means identifying new assets or opportunities that could prove beneficial for both themselves and portfolio companies when they arise. Fallen Angels Investment Strategy BenefitsIn many cases, fallen angels represent a good opportunity for investors who are willing to take on additional risks. This is because they can offer the chance to invest in some of the biggest and most successful companies in the world even if their stocks have fallen from grace due to one reason or another. Here are some of the benefits of the Fallen Angels Investment Strategy
ConclusionAs with all other types of investment strategies, a fallen angels investment strategy requires thorough due diligence in order to determine whether the company is suitable for investments. While fallen angels may seem like great opportunities at first glance, it's important to remember that there are always risks involved. However, don't let this discourage you from testing out your own Fallen Angels Investment Strategy because it could bring you plenty of profits. Article Source Here: Fallen angels investment strategy Corporate governance is a system of practices, rules, and processes by which companies are directed and controlled. It provides a framework for companies to achieve their objectives. Corporate governance defines several rules and practices that help companies run effectively and efficiently. Among these, corporate governance requires companies to establish several committees, including the audit committee. What is the Audit Committee?The audit committee is a body that overlooks a company's external and internal audit functions. This committee is also responsible for ensuring the integrity of financial and narrative systems within a company. For most companies, having an audit committee is mandatory under corporate governance requirements. Other companies can also voluntarily establish an audit committee. The audit committee reports directly to the board of directors. This committee includes independent non-executive directors, one of whom has a financial background. The duties and responsibilities of the committee may differ from one company to another. In some cases, this committee may also be in charge of risk management if a risk management committee doesn’t exist. What are the Audit Committee Terms of Reference?The audit committee terms of reference define the purpose or structure of the committee. Usually, it is a written document that helps set an audit committee's objectives, responsibilities, and other fundamental aspects. The audit committee terms of reference serve as a policy manual for the audit committee. The audit committee's terms of reference will differ from one company to another. Companies may add specific portions to it or remove some others. Nonetheless, most terms of reference documents will cover some crucial areas. These include the objective of the committee, its responsibilities, its constitution, its authority, secretarial and meeting duties, the review process, reporting procedures, etc. Usually, most of the areas within the terms of reference will take guidance from corporate governance and best practices. However, companies can modify these terms to serve their purpose. However, any modifications to the terms of reference should be in line with the corporate governance requirements. Companies must also review the terms of reference regularly and make any amendments they deem necessary. What are the Audit Committee Best Practices?Best practices are procedures, rules, or processes that are accepted or prescribed as being most effective. These rules can help companies understand what the benchmark for audit committees is. Best practices may come from various sources. Some of these may arise from legislation, while others may relate to a specific industry. Following the audit committee's best practices is not mandatory for companies. However, if companies choose to adhere to these practices, they will improve the efficiency and effectiveness of their audit committees. The audit committee's best practices merely define the standard process, rules, or procedures. Companies may also use these practices as guidance to setting up their audit committees. Audit committee best practices may define various factors. These may include the audit committee's work plan, meeting requirements, communication practices, corporate governance practices, etc. Similarly, the best practices may vary from one place to another. However, they usually cover the same areas and have similar practices. ConclusionThe audit committee is a committee that companies must set up due to corporate governance requirements. This committee usually handles a company's internal and external audit, financial reporting, and risk management functions. The audit committee terms of reference is a document that defines various aspects of the committee's work. The audit committee's best practices are practices that are accepted or prescribed as being most effective. Post Source Here: Audit Committee Terms of Reference Best Practice Hedge fund investment is a type of private equity. Hedge funds are less regulated than mutual funds, and traditionally do not have the same liquidity requirements as other investments. They invest in stocks, bonds, currencies, commodities, and derivatives, which offer high-risk/high-return potential. Due to this high-risk factor, it is important to perform extensive due diligence when evaluating a potential hedge fund investment. A lack of transparency leaves potential investors with only the information the manager wants them to know, and this creates a serious obstacle for those seeking to mitigate risk. So let's find out what is Hedge Fund Investment Due Diligence and why it is important. What are Hedge FundsHedge funds are pools of capital that are managed by an investment advisor, like a mutual fund. However, hedge funds employ a wide range of strategies and can invest in almost anything. Hedge fund managers are usually compensated with a flat fee or through performance fees (a percentage of profits). It offers a great opportunity for professionals and retail investors to earn a high return on their investments. Everything comes at a risk, even the loss of your initial capital. These funds are used by large and experienced professional investors with very deep pockets such as banks, insurance companies, pensions plans, endowments, wealthy families, and other qualified investors. Hedge funds have an extremely high risk and have the potential to provide higher returns. What is due diligenceDue diligence is basically a review of all the relevant documents, reports, and other information available about a company or an investment opportunity to determine whether or not it's a good investment. It provides investors with information about the financial history and current status to determine if the investment is sound. It helps in identifying problems that may affect future business operations so that decision-makers can take steps to avoid them. What is hedge fund investment due diligenceHedge fund investment due diligence is an investigation to gain the knowledge, skills, and ability required to assess a hedge fund's strategy, value, and integrity. So it may be a set of procedures that are carried out by investors before they invest in a hedge fund in order to mitigate risk. An investor should use all available sources to learn about the manager and team before deciding whether or not to invest. The due diligence process can take weeks, if not months, in order for you to determine that the information you receive is accurate. Importance of hedge fund due diligenceThere is no doubt that investors and potential investors have started paying more attention to the due diligence process over the past couple of years. Daily news about financial scams and other scandals has made many investors realize that they need to do their research before investing their money. Here are some points to understand why hedge fund due diligence is important
ConclusionIt's a fact that due diligence helps investors gain knowledge and identify hidden problems within an investment. As an investor, it's your responsibility to be up to date with all the information about your investment. Here we can see that hedge fund due diligence is an extremely complicated task, but you must not give up and should never take a decision in haste. Originally Published Here: Hedge Fund Investment Due Diligence An audit approach defines the strategy that auditors use to conduct an audit. Usually, auditors use a specific audit approach for every audit assignment based on several factors. Among these approaches, some may apply to clients or engagements in different industries. One of these includes the substantive audit approach, also known as the vouching approach. What is the Substantive Audit Approach?The substantive audit approach is a strategy that auditors use that primarily focuses on substantive procedures. This approach requires auditors to perform more work. However, it also allows them to test the subject matter in more depth. The substantive audit approach is the opposite of the system-based audit approach, which relies on internal controls. Auditors use the substantive audit approach to verify balances and transactions in more detail. Usually, auditors assess the client’s internal control systems first. If they believe they cannot rely on the systems in place at the client, they will choose the substantive audit approach. In other words, this approach is beneficial when auditors believe the client’s internal control systems to be inefficient. How does the Substantive Audit Approach work?As mentioned, the substantive audit approach begins with an assessment of a client’s internal control systems. Usually, auditors do so to decide on the audit strategy to use. If a client’s internal control systems are reliable, auditors will prefer the system-based approach to audits. On the other hand, if they can’t trust those systems, they will use the substantive audit approach. The substantive audit approach requires more work from auditors. Since auditors cannot rely on the client’s internal control systems, they will seek to cover the audit risks through substantive procedures. These procedures primarily include a test of details and substantive audit procedures. With this approach, auditors will select a larger sample of events and transactions and test them. The substantive approach to audits focuses on testing balances and transactions in detail. It is why it is also known as the vouching approach to audit. This approach may apply to both internal and external audits. Auditors perform thorough vouching by looking at supporting documents for all items tested. In case the client's internal controls are inefficient, this approach can be highly effective. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the Substantive Audit Approach?The substantive approach to audits allows auditors to test balances and transactions in detail. By doing so, they can cover a significantly higher portion of audit risks compared to other approaches. However, that is still subject to sampling risks. This approach is also one of the traditional approaches to audit and is easy to understand. Substantive audits are beneficial when auditors can’t rely on the client’s internal controls. The substantive audit approach has some drawbacks, though. The primary one of these includes more work performed by auditors. Since this approach focuses on larger volumes of testing, it significantly increases auditors' workloads. Similarly, the substantive audit approach is not risk-focused. Some auditors consider it outdated due to the number of better alternative audit approaches available. ConclusionThe substantive audit approach is a strategy that auditors use when the client's internal control systems are unreliable. This approach focuses on a higher volume of testing and vouching. Due to this, auditors will perform more work to cover the audit risks associated with an audit engagement. However, this approach is more traditional, and there are better alternatives available. Post Source Here: What is the Substantive Audit Approach Hedge funds are investment pools that represent a variety of investments, including stocks and other securities. Diversification is the act of investing in multiple assets to reduce risk exposure from any one asset. Hedge funds may be an effective means for investors to increase their diversified portfolios without having to take on excessive risk. Hedge funds can be used as a diversifier in your portfolio, but you should understand the risks and rewards before using them. So in this article, we'll discuss what hedge funds are, how they work, and what their advantages are. We will also cover some concerns about using them and talk about the costs associated with this kind of fund. What are Hedge Funds?Hedge funds are investment funds that include a variety of investments, such as stocks and securities. The difference between hedge funds and mutual funds is that hedge funds offer substantial flexibility to their managers to invest in company shares or other financial instruments, such as options and futures contracts. Mutual funds have stricter guidelines on what they can invest in. This flexibility is what makes hedge funds riskier than mutual funds, but it also means that they can provide a lot of potential returns. Managed by an individual or group, these investment pools represent a variety of investments and are typically offered only to accredited investors with extensive assets to invest. What makes Hedge Funds different from other investments?The degree of diversification and flexibility that hedge funds offer is what makes them different. Remember, not all financial investments are created equally. When you choose your investments, it's important to consider how these assets will contribute to (or detract from) the overall value of your portfolio over time. Hedge funds have a reputation as high-risk, high-reward investment vehicles. The combination of the two means that they can offer higher returns than other funds that are limited in their holdings. But let's be honest here: this is not a get-rich-quick scheme. Hedge funds are for those investors who understand both the risks and the rewards and want to use them to maximize their investment potential. How do Hedge Funds Work?Hedge funds pool individual investments and generally require investors to become partners with the fund manager. Investors hand over a portion of their assets, which the hedge fund uses to create a large portfolio that is then divided among many different market securities. The goal of this strategy is for small, short-term gains to offset longer-term losses. The fund manager requires investors to lock up their funds for a specified period of time, sometimes many years. As with any investment, there are risks involved in using hedge funds as part of your portfolio. You should be aware of these risks and willing to accept them before investing your money. The Advantages of Hedge FundsHere are some of the advantages of Hedge Funds:
Disadvantages of Hedge FundsHere are some of the disadvantages of Hedge Funds:
ConclusionHedge funds are a good idea to invest in if you want to make your money grow. They might be risky, but they can also help you get more money. If you are not sure what to do with your money, hedge funds can help you find the right solution. If you feel confused, you can always get help from financial advisors or other investors. But don't forget, the investment you make is your decision and it's up to you what to do with your money. Originally Published Here: Hedge Funds as Diversifiers |
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